当全球史在说global时是怎样connectivity？16-20世纪
Fillafer, Franz L. 2017. ‘A World Connecting? From the Unity of History to Global History’. History and Theory 56 (1):3–37.
來自European University Institute的Fillafer老師想要研究，what actually is the “global” in global history，他称之为world-historical process，关键的是概念是connectivity。
16-17世纪，随着“地理大发现”带来的历史时间/空间的变化，导致了西欧的“总体史”（universal history）——以圣经预言为导向的——衰落了。
比如，直接挑战来源：Chaldean, Egyptian, and Chinese chronologies ... This pluralization was inextricably connected with a novel type of historicity that grew out of dogmatic premises and was vitally important for world-historical sensibilities
如何为global history，或者a world，再提供一个unity的分析单位呢？这时候，产生了两个替代方案：自然法、风俗论。
1.：The Unity of Nature / 自然法或自然宗教的史学——替代方案之一
通过假定人的自然性、或者通过自然宗教，让世界各地之间，既有共同预设，又可比较。
This scheme of naturalness was predicated on humans’ innate capacities like natural religion, on patterns of sociability, and on the universality of environmental factors.
但是对这样的“全球史学”，有两个批评： 不仅多大程度上人性是自然总体的一部分，而且这样也将世界的历时性变成了共时性了
The fundamental question that arose here was to what extent human nature remained part of the “totality” of nature, whether it was equiprimordial with, subjected to, or covariant with cosmic nature writ large.
2. The Unity of Culture —— 风俗（custom）论的全球史学——替代方案之二
16-17世纪时，这种全球史学认为各地有各自的文化基因。
Historical accounts required situative, densely layered synchronicity, the recovery of cultural totalities each of which possessed a particular genius and had to be made intelligible in its own terms.
起初这种全球史学只是粗俗的类比，然后变成了以西欧的基督教传统为标准来看其它世界地区。比如，拉菲托（文化人类学家奠基人之一）认为美洲人是希腊人的后裔，他的推论是：
Lafiteau has the Americans come from the ancient Greeks, and here are his reasons. The Greeks had fables, some of the Americans have them as well. The first Greeks went hunting, some Americans do so as well. The first Greeks had oracles, the Americans have sorcerers. The ancient Greeks danced at their festivals, the Americans dance too. One must admit that these reasons are convincing.
3. 18世纪的启蒙史学中的“全球”
显然，在圣经式总体史之后，自然法与风俗论都无法提供有效地响应地理大发现后的世界了。此时进入了18世纪的启蒙史学，则产生了两个转变：
——从猎奇的观察到分析关联性。from curiosity to connectivity。
——从跨时代的比较，到时代单位的研究。from transepochal comparison (think of the “contemporary ancestors”) to epochal unity。
Reinhart Koselleck trenchantly noted that one of the innovations of professionalizing eighteenth-century historiography consisted in its establishment of a sequence of epochs that were no longer deduced from the universal-historical trajectory of salvation, from nature with its phylogenetic and ontogenetic analogies, or from myth, but from history itself. In this sense the eighteenth-century invention of the Middle Ages constituted a decisive move toward an immanentist conception of historical periodization.
也就是说，一方面，把原有的总体史拆成了世界各地间的相互联接，另一方面，也使得世界各地原本是分裂的重新构成了一个总体。作者称为world-historical process
It departed from the perception that the different regions of the globe became increasingly interconnected through conquest, commerce, and culture, and that Europe acted as the fulcrum of this process. It was in eighteenth-century histories that Europe came to serve as an agent of reintegration for previously dispersed and distinct pasts, permitting again the establishment of a world-historical entity.
在实际研究中，比如哥廷根学派的“共时性的表格”（synchronistic tables），仍不过在添加“总体史”，也在想论证的是，世界的权力如何从东方转向了西方。
（圖片來源于這篇paper）
4. 19世纪兰克史学/历史主义中的“全球”
在保持了启蒙史学中对于“联接性”的追求，历史主义更加注意了证据取向而非宣教/伦理取向了。
对兰克来说，重点反转过来，是要通过地方表达总体，更加重视民族国家研究。
Both irrefutably stipulated selection: the universal should be expressed through the particular. The professional standard of source mastery, its reliance on philological skills and archival sources, made it impossible to appreciate, let alone ascertain the quality of the ethnographical and historiographical material from extra-European sources.
对于那些抛弃了自然法的史家来看，不再有人的自然属性，而是人按阶级等划分的人类历史，比如马克思的阶级冲突史。
This plan of nature was imparted with different types of lawlike sequences; among those most relevant for world historiography are Smith’s invisible hand, Kant’s unsociable sociability, Hegel’s cunning of reason, and Marx’s history of class conflict.
5. 20世纪的全球史学中“全球”
1) The unity of history came to consist in the causational structure of a sequence of events integrated through spatial connectedness, a sequence that created a relevant “global past.”
2) The progressive irreversibility of this process was praised and rejected on moral grounds, but its factual properties were incontrovertible. The conceptual quality of the process was homeostatic in the sense that the sequential recombination of its elements invariably guaranteed its stable continuation.
3) The formulation of the world-historical process involved a large-scale move from comparison to correlation and convergence
（Sociological理论大缸第167期）
鏈接：歷史社會學合輯
反驳蒂利：亦是历史社会学家的涂尔干（Emirbayer,1996）
【德国社会学】“历史风范”是怎么衰落的？内斗、纳粹/流亡与美帝
（图片来源：张悬、青峰采访，youtube）